Hindi Literature
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A Chronology
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The following article is a journey through time, tracking how Hindi literature has evolved over the years.
With Indic languages becoming popular in computing, perhaps the literature in Indian languages will see further development.
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Introduction In the quest to analyze the developments in any language over time, a very important aspect is the manner in which the literature of that language has evolved over time.
Literature in linguistics is almost as important as archaeological artifacts are to the study of civilization. It draws a clear picture of how changes in society have been reflected as changes in the language. Often, writers and scribes have created new words to describe a particular concept, which have then passed into common usage.
Hindi literature is no different from any other in this regard. The history of Hindi literature is extremely rich and colorful. In this two-part article, we explore the evolution of Hindi literature from its earliest phases to modern times.
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Aadikaal - The beginning The origins of Hindi as a language lie in the ancient Prakrit family of languages, from which most of the languages of the Indian subcontinent have developed. Post vedic Sanskrit is also responsible for a major part of Hindi's modern form. Between 100 BC and 100 CE, Sanskrit gradually began to replace the Prakrit languages in the inscriptions made by the rulers of that period. This was also the period during which Prakrit was being replaced by the Apabhramsas as the lingua franca in Northern India.
Apabhramsa literally means "not pure" or "corrupt". An early example of the use of Apabhramsas in literature is in Vikramorvashiyam, by Kalidasa. From 100 CE to around 1200 CE, the Apabhramsas were the language of literature. Later these Apabhramsas would evolve into modern Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati and so forth. In 933 CE, Devasena wrote the Shravakachar, which is considered to be the first Hindi book.
Around 1283 CE, Amir Khusrau's pahelis and mukaris were some of the earliest writings in a language similar to modern Hindi. Khusrau used the term "Hindavi" in his writings, which may be the origin of the name Hindi.
Most of the writings of the Aadikaal in Hindi literature are commentaries in the form of poetry. The works of this period can be divided into three major classes i.e. the Apabhramsa poetry, which is predominantly devotional in nature and comprises of many of the foundational writings of the Jain faith, the Vir Rasa, or Heroic poetry which mainly consists of poems written by court poets in praise of their rulers and finally Miscellaneous poetry which was by the common people. An important work of this time is the Prithviraj Raso, written by Chand Bardai in praise of the Rajput king, Prithviraj Chauhan.
The poets of this period avoided eroticism in their works, scorned racial discrimination and concentrated on defining tenets of morality by way of their poetry. The doha (couplet) style of poetry developed during this time. Depiction of nature is also common in the poetry of this period. Unfortunately, most of the literary works of this period were lost in Muhammad Ghori's campaign, and very little of it remains today. Towards the end of this period, Urdu and Farsi were becoming common in Northern India and they were beginning to have an effect on Hindi as well. |
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Bhaktikaal - The devotional era The Bhaktikaal's origins seem to coincide with the arrival of the Mughals. This was the time when both the Sufi and Bhakti movements were gaining momentum in Islam and Hinduism respectively. Both the Sufi and Bhakti are based on devotional poetry and lyrics. The early works of Bhaktikaal style poetry date back to the times of Amir Khusrau, with his great works in Sufi literature. Other noteworthy poets include Baba Bulley Shah, who lived around the Kasur Punjab area.
In the Bhakti movement two main sects evolved, the Nirguna and the Saguna.
The Nirguna sect followed the concept of a shapeless, formless, all pervasive God, while the Saguna sect pursued the concept of God having a certain form and were predominantly worshipers of the incarnations of Vishnu.
Major poets of the Nirguna sect are Sant Kabir and Guru Nanak, who's doha (couplet), and chaupayi (quartet) style of poetry remains a standard even now.
On the Saguna side were stalwarts of Vaishnava poetry like Surdas, Tulsidas and Malik Muhammad Jayasi. Works like the Padmavat and the Ramacharitamanas were written in the Avadhi dialect of Hindi during this period.
This was also a period of great integration between the Hindu and the Islamic elements of art and literature. A number of Muslim poets have written fantastic verse in praise of the Hindu gods, and vice versa. For example, Aburrahim Khan, the court poet to the Mughal emperor Akbar, was a great devotee of Lord Krishna. The Mughal rulers of this period also encouraged the integration of Hindu and Muslim societies.
The Bhaktikaal is known as the Golden Age of Hindi literature on account of the beauty of the concepts portrayed as well as the choice of words used to present them. |
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Ritikaal - The refinement of writing styles The Ritikaal, also known as the Scholastic period of Hindi literature, is marked by the increasing influence of eroticism on language and literary works. The era is also known for the tremendous refinement of procedures in writing and also for the recognition it brought to poetry and prose as an art form.
Much of the writing of this period is an extension of the works of the Saguna sect of the Bhaktikaal. However, despite the fact that much of the writing of this period was under the banner of Krishna Bhakti, or devotion to the Lord Krishna, the focus of poetry shifted from devotion and oneness with God towards the more shringaric aspects of Krishna's life. The works of this period often describe, in semi-erotic verse, the flirtatious pranks played by Krishna on the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavan, as well as the physical beauty of his consort, Radha.
The poets of Ritikaal can be classified into two groups.
The Ritibaddha, meaning "bound by procedure" style of poetry was composed on definitional and (Lakshana) and illustrative (Lakshya) themes. These were meant to serve as examples and guidelines for the leading of a moral and correct life.
Poets like Chintamani, Keshav, Mati Ram, Deva, Kulpati Misra, and Bhikari Das were leaders of this style.
The Ritimukta, meaning "free of procedure" style, consists of free-minded poets like Alam, Ghananand, Bodha and Thakur. They wrote in a spontaneous manner with powerful feelings of love, quite apart from rhetorical poetry.
One of the most famous works of this period is the Bihari Satsai, by the poet Bihari, which consists of seven hundred verses. |
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Aadhunik Kaal - The Modern Period (post 1800 CE) The period after 1800 CE is considered the period of Modern Hindi literature. This period has seen the influence of Hindi literature on society and vice versa. The writers of this period wrote about the happenings around them. Early in this period, the effects of Urdu, Farsi and English had begun to show upon the Hindi language. The British in 1800 CE established Fort William College in Calcutta, and a number of professors, authors and poets were commissioned to write material in Hindi and Urdu for use at the College. Lalloolal's Premsagar is one of the noted texts of this genre. This was the period in which Hindustani, a mixture of Hindi, Urdu and English was fast growing as the lingua franca. Bharatendu Harishchandra is one of the finest authors of this time. He preferred the use of the Braj dialect of Hindi for poetry but deliberately wrote prose in Khadiboli, a heavily Sanskrit-ized dialect of Hindi, spoken across North India. Bharatendu Harishchandra is also known for his plays. Drama was becoming popular around this time as a means of entertainment and mass education, and a number of playwrights made their reputations in this period.
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Gopala Sharan Sinha are some of the other major writers of this time.
Newspapers and magazines were also beginning to gain popularity with the masses and this added to the growth of literature. The Chandrakanta Santati, a novel written by Devaki Nandan Khatri, is recognized as the first major work of prose in the modern period of Hindi literature.
This was also the period in which Hindi literature moved from the realm of fantasy and entertainment towards realism. One of the first authors to start writing about the surroundings and situation of the people was Munshi Premchand, one of the stalwarts of Hindi literature. In stories like Godaan, Gaban, Kafan and Idgah, Premchand presented a very real and some times dark picture of the times. He spoke about issues like poverty, misery, the zamindari system, and corruption. His works are said to have been affected by his own personal experiences in life, and this added an extra touch of authenticity to his works. This was the time when common people began to identify with literature as a representation of their lives.
Around the same time, a new wave of nationalism was sweeping across the country. The poets and authors of the time fanned the fire of national pride by writing rousing poems and essays. This period of awakening for the Indian populace and its reflection in literature is sometimes referred to as the ‘Dwivedi' period, for Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, one of the forerunners of nationalist writing. |
After Independence, the next big change in Hindi literature came with the advent of the Chhayavad style of writing. Chhayavad, which literally means, "shadow-talk" uses metaphors to paraphrase the issue being dealt with. Jaishankar Prasad and Mahadevi Varma are two of the best-known names from this style of writing. Jaishankar Prasad's Kamayani, which is a description of the Great Flood or Pralaya of Hindu mythology, is considered to be one of the best works of Hindi poetry, second only to Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas. The Chhayavad movement was also the origin of a number of writing styles that have remained popular ever since.
Around the 1950's and 60's Hindi drama also developed considerably with two new genres, the poetic play and the radio play becoming popular. Radio was spreading rapidly as a communication medium and Hindi literature was quick to keep pace with growing technology. Soon, film and television started to replace radio as the medium of choice for mass communication and Hindi further evolved to provide content for these. |
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Hindi Literature Today Hindi literature has been primarily composed of poetry. Hindi prose is relatively young, but has evolved at a breathtaking pace. Today, with the educated upper and middleclass of India speaking English as a primary language of work and communication, Hindi literature seems to have taken the back seat. However, Hindi newspapers and magazines continue to be the most widely read publications across the country. Also, through cable television and the Internet, a wide-ranging audience eagerly consumes a vast amount of content in Hindi. A number of websites provide easy and efficient access to the artistic works of a completely new generation of writers.
With Indic languages moving into the realm of computing, hopefully the Hindi language will see a new set of stars on the literary horizon soon. |
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